Discuss the relationship between Nationalism and Racism
The aim of this essay is to discuss the relationship between nationalism and racism. In order to present a stronger argument this paper will include colonialism as another term which has close relationship with nationalism and racism. Arguably without referring to colonialism this discussion will not be complete. This paper would argue that there is a complex relationship between colonialism, nationalism and racism. Examples in proving the argument are from three countries of Britain, Australia and Turkey. It will be discussed that in all three countries nationalist movements and nationalism in general has led to racism and discrimination of different groups and minorities. The essay will start with defining nationalism, colonialism, racism and assimilation.
Nationalism is described as an ideology that was created after the French Revolution (Cashmore 1994, p.224). Nationalism is also defined as a reaction against globalization and a product of globalization (Baylis and Smith 2001, p.523). Some factors which oppose nationalism are migration, economic integration, employment abroad and shared prosperity (Baylis and Smith 2001, p.523). Some factors which promote nationalism are hostility to immigration, fears of unemployment and dislike of alien cultures (Baylis and Smith 2001, p.523). From these points it could be concluded that Australian nationalism is partly the result of fear of immigrants and new cultures as well as other factors in regards to the rights of indigenous Australians. Although nationalism has positive sides such as providing a sense of belonging, it has negative side such as causing conflicts which in many cases has resulted in genocide and ethnic massacres (Baylis and Smith 2001, p.532). It can also take some forms of political thinking such as xenophobia and chauvinism (Baylis and Smith 2001, pp.532-533). Sometimes it is used by a majority group to expel, oppress, and exterminate those who are considered as outsiders and not belonging to the majority group (Baylis and Smith 2001, p.533). Nationalism is criticized for being used as a tool of domination within societies (Baylis and Smith 2001, p.532).
Additionally, nationalism is a collective form of racial expression (Fritsch and Phillipose 2001). Nationalism is also described as an extension of racism (Fritsch and Phillipose 2001). On the individual level racism emphasizes and justifies a superiority which is played out at the national level, through the notions of class. Ii is affirmed that ‘class formation was shaped by racialization’ (Fritsch and Phillipose 2001). Nationalism as a racism also expresses itself when the character of the other have a negative assessment (Fritsch and Phillipose 2001). Thus,” a nationalized institutionalism of racism” acts as a defender and supporter of ‘us’ against ‘them’ (Fritsch and Phillipose 2001). Arguably there are two types of nationalism, and in order to distinguish them they will be called “good” and “bad” (Edgar and Sedgwick 1999, p.256). “Good” nationalism is also called patriotism and “bad” nationalism is called Chauvinism.
Australian nationalism emerged at a time where the European dominance was strong and almost complete, when British authority was at its highest point, “when Social Darwinism was the most powerful current of intellectual life”, and when ‘race’ dominated the way people were thinking about all aspects of society (Gray and Winter 1997, p.35). Therefore, Australian nationalism was deeply associated with white Australia (Gray and Winter 1997, p.35). The national social development of Australia has been under the direct impact of White Australia Policy (Dunn 2004, p.6). In this process a populist national identity which excluded and marginalized particular groups, was constructed (Dunn 2004, p.6). During the first few decades of the twentieth century Australia was in the process of nation-building and aboriginal people were excluded as it was expected that they will disappear and die out under strict control until the completion of the process (Hollinsworth 2006, p.105).
Colonialism refers to the domination of a powerful group on another group with lesser power (Cashmore 1994, p.64). Colonial powers took control of the political, social and economic life of the colonized countries (Cashmore 1994, p.65). They treated the people of their colonies as slaves and viewed their physical appearance and culture as nothing and inferior compared to their physical appearance and culture (Cashmore 1994, p.65). Racist beliefs were used to justify their ways in which they treated the colonized people as “subhuman species” (Cashmore 1994, p.65). Although there have been instances of racism where racism has existed independently from colonialism “racism was highly complementary to colonialism” (Cashmore 1994, p.65). Some of the countries which have colonized other countries are Britain, France, Spain and Portugal (Cashmore 1994, p.65).
Defining racism is difficult as it is an “emotive” word (Pettman 1986, p.3). The meaning of racism changes according to time and place and nowadays in Australia it can be seen in different forms (Pettman 1986, p.3). In order to understand racism clearly Pettman (1986, p.3) uses four dimensional approaches to the term which are racial prejudice, racial discrimination, racist ideology and institutional racism. Pettman (1986, p.3) states that all these dimensions have complex relation with each other. In Australia, people of Middle Eastern appearance, Indigenous people, as well as people from Africa are the victims of all four dimensional approaches (Pettman 1986, p.6). During the nineteenth century strong xenophobic nationalist movements declared that “Australia is for the white man” and by white they meant Western European people preferably British people (Pettman 1986, p.6). In another definition racism is described as “the valuation of differences, real or imaginary” (Fritsch and Phillipose 2001).
Racism is expressed in different ways. Some years ago racism was a belief that a group of people with certain character are superior or inferior (Tucker 1987, p.16). This old racism arose in the age of European expansion and with discovering new people on other continents scientific techniques were employed to distinct and characterize them according to the shape of their skull, hair pile, skin colour and other physical appearances (Tucker 1987, p.16). From then on Europeans were seen as superior (Tucker 1987, p.16). However nowadays racism has a new form which is described as more “polite” compared to old racism (Tucker 1987, p.16). The old racism still exists but it is not acceptable any longer in politics (Tucker 1987, p.17).
It is difficult to separate the close relationship between racism, nationalism and colonialism as it is not clear where and when one starts and the other one ends (Fritsch and Phillipose 2001). Racism shares kinship with ideologies of nationalism and colonialism (Fritsch and Phillipose 2001). Additionally, racism is described as a force which motivates both nationalism and colonialism, and allows the processes of colonialism and nationalism to take place (Fritsch and Phillipose 2001). According to Fritsch and Phillipose (2001) “this pervasive utility of racism as an ideology that facilitates nationalism and colonialism is the reason that it can act within colonies to produce racists, and can make the colonized internalize their inequity”. Although nationalism and racism have some significant differences, in common the two terms have a hostile attitude towards others (Todorov 1993, p.248).
An example to examine the relationship between racism and “bad” nationalism is the way in which Kurds in a part of Kurdistan under the Turkish occupation are treated under the Turkish government. In that region there is no unified administration identity (Schaefar 2008, p.818). Even using the term Kurdistan to describe the region is rejected by the Turkish state (Schaefar 2008, p.818). The history of Kurds is full of struggle, destruction, and displacement and in that history war and persecution has fuelled constant movement and migration of these people (Schaefar 2008, p.818).
Britain is another example in discussing and examining the relationship between “bad” nationalism and racism. It is pointed out that racial symbols have been used in the construction of national identity in contemporary Britain (Solomos 1989, p.122). Further it is argued that through complex ways notions of race and national identity have been articulated to support political movements and pressure groups (Solomos 1989, p.123).
In Britain, black citizens are viewed as enemies within that pose a threat to the British society and the cultural and political values of the nation because they want to keep their differences (Solomos 1989, p.135). Some people have argued that opposition to the settlement of Black migrants in Britain does not mean that White British are racist (Solomos 1989, p.129). In Britain racism is naturalized (Solomos 1989, p.135). For instance hostilities towards black communities is regarded as “a natural response to the presence of people of a different cultural and racial background” (Solomos 1989, p.135). Also among the British society it is believed that for people it is natural to prefer their own kind over people of other groups and to reject the creation of a “multi-racial” society (Solomos 1989, p.135).
Fear of immigration in Britain was expressed by Margaret Thatcher when she stated that the country might be swamped by people coming from different cultures (Solomos 1989, p.129). The relationship between nationalism and racism could be highlighted in Thatcher’s swamping statement in 1978 when she expressed her fears of the impacts of immigration and “race” on Britain’s localities, schools and heritage (Solomos 1989, p.139). As a step towards keeping their ‘nationality’ ‘purely white’ and protect their nation and nationality from the presence of other people from different background a country such as Britain has forbidden marriage between Britons and non-Aryans (Tucker 1987, p.17).
Australia is third example. There are a number of ways and examples to examine the relationship between “bad” nationalism and racism in Australia particularly in regards to the treatment of Aboriginal people. An example would be the different methods which were used to eliminate Aboriginal people in the 18th and 19th century such as removing Aboriginal children from their families, controlling Aboriginal women’s sexuality and more (Hollinsworth 2006, p.106). Another important example is the way in which Aboriginal land rights were regarded as a threat to the white Australian community and an unfair decision for the farmers and mining companies (Gale 2005, p.39). Some described it as a threat which would divide the nation and therefore Australia would never be able to address external threats (Gale 2005, p.39). After the Mabo High Court decision, Haugh Morgan who then as the head of the Western Mining Corporation argued that Indigenous Australian were the weaker race with a weak culture (Gale 2005, p.39). In 1996 Pauline Hanson also opposed this decision and the Australian media arranged many opportunities for her to express her fears of government’s decisions in regard to land rights (Gale 2005, pp.40-41). Both Hanson and the media shared a sense of nationalism where white was regarded as mainstream, ordinary and employed and black was regarded as other through representation of race (Gale 2005, p.41).
In order to understand the relationship between “bad” nationalism and racism it is interesting to look at the ways in which Australian narratives is told. From those narratives which are told it could be pointed out that whiteness is the symbol of being Australian and Indigenous people are excluded from narratives as they are not regarded as Australian but a problem (Elder 2007, p.11). That means skin colour is the main measurement which categorizes one as Australian or non-Australian in Australian narratives (Elder 2007, pp.11, 12). Another example in regards to attempts to tell Australian narratives and the way in which nationalism and racism could be highlighted along each other is objections of critics after the opening of national museum in Canberra (Hollinsworth 2006, p.245). The museum and its employees where criticized for what critics described as legitimizing false narratives of Australian history (Hollinsworth 2006, p.245). The museum is being criticized for ignoring the achievements of ‘dead white males’, including an exhibit which tells about quarantine of immigrants when once in Australia others were kept out of the country through making laws and erecting barriers (Hollinsworth 2006, p.245). These critics want to keep these stories and the victims silence and disregard many people who struggled in the way of making Australia “a more socially just and culturally inclusive society” (Hollinsworth 2006, p.246).
Additionally, it is important to pay attention to the concept of ‘blood’ as “ideas of race and stock, of blood and breed were fundamental to social and political ideologies of nationalism, imperialism and progress” (Hollinsworth 2006, pp.105-106). Because of the lack of scientific knowledge it was believed that the personality, character, morality and worth of Individuals were seen as mainly determined by their blood (Hollinsworth 2006, p.106). In Australia children of ‘mixed-race’ were only accepted in the white settlers’ community if their behavior was similar to the European side, otherwise they were regarded as having the indigenous ‘blood’ and were not accepted (Hollinsworth 2006, p.106).
Further on the relationship between racism and “bad” nationalism it is pointed out that the Australian government planned to mix Aboriginal people with the rest of Australia particularly the white people through a process called Assimilation. Assimilation is defined as the process of becoming united or becoming similar (Cashmore 1994, p.37). Arguably, assimilation is a racist ideology and policy which believes in the superiority of Anglo-Australian ways and asserts that others should adapt these ways (McConnochie, Hollinsworth and Pettman 1988, p.182). Assimilation is not only used in Australia but in many other countries such as Turkey. In Turkey the process of assimilation under the Kemalist policy of Atta Turk threatened the very existence of Kurds as a different nation from Turks (Van Horne 1997, p.213). The aim of the assimilation was to ultimately deny a separated identity called Kurds (Van Horne 1997, p.213). The process included intermarriage between Kurds and Turks in order to absorb Kurds in the Turkish society (Van Horne 1997, p.213).
An event which fuelled the flames of debates on racism and nationalism was the formation of Pauline Hanson’s One Nation Party. The party was formed to oppose government’s assistance to Aborigines, migrants and multiculturalism (Hollinsworth 2006, p.230). In her speech in the parliament Hanson stated “to survive in peace and harmony, united and strong, we must have one people, one nation, one flag” (Australian News Commentary 1996). Later she claimed that she fights for the rights of the white community, Italians, Greeks and other communities apart from Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders (Hollinsworth 2006, p.230). She also regarded Asians as different as they have different religion and culture from ghettos and cannot integrate into the Australian community (Hollinsworth 2006, p.230). Although Pauline Hanson rejects any claims that she is racist, her statements and views are a new form of racism where people’s identity and worth are not measured according to their physical appearance (Hollinsworth 2006, pp.230-233). In this new form of racism the scales for measurement are culture and religion. In Australia there are two types of racism which are called symbolic racism and blatant racism (Hollinsworth 2006, p.233). Symbolic racism is related to national identity as an Australian (Hollinswrth 2006, p.233). Supporters’ decision to vote for Hanson’s Party and support her was strongly interrelated with symbolic racism and moderately with blatant racism (Hollinsworth 2006, p.233). In the view of the supporters of One Nation Party Australian identity was seen as exclusively ‘white’ and Anglo and the existence of Asians and Aborigines was a challenge to their power and supremacy (Hollinsworth 2006, p.233).
Similar to One Nation Party in Australia and Pauline Hanson’s statement about one people, one nation, one flag, Erdoğan the prime minister of Turkey recently said "What have we said? We have said, one nation, one flag, one motherland and one state” (ALTINTAŞ 2008). This statement affirms that the Turkish government is ignoring the rights of Kurds who by all means are a different nation on their own land now occupied by Turkey.
Overall this paper discussed the relationship between racism and nationalism and also included colonialism as a critical term in examining this relationship. In the paper nationalism is defined in different ways and it is divided into two different types which are “bad” nationalism and “good” nationalism. Also colonialism and racism have been defined. It is argued that there is a complex relationship between the three terms. Three countries of Britain, Turkey and Australia have been examined in discussing the relationship between racism and nationalism. In the paper different ways of using nationalism to oppress and discriminate minorities are discussed. From the argument it could be concluded that “bad” nationalism, colonialism and racism are all interrelated.
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